The Proto-Indo-Europeans: Origins, Language, Symbols, and the Modern Misuses of Their Legacy
The Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE) represent one of the most important yet enigmatic groups in human history. While we have no direct records of their language or culture, their influence is woven into the fabric of modern languages, mythologies, and even cultural symbols that span across Europe and parts of Asia. As the linguistic ancestors of nearly half of the world’s population, the Proto-Indo-Europeans have left an indelible mark on human civilisation.
In this post, we will explore who they were, where they likely came from, how their language was reconstructed, and how their heritage has been appropriated and distorted by pseudoscientific ideologies. Finally, we’ll discuss the symbolism and religious practices that have been attributed to them through linguistic and archaeological reconstructions.
Who Were the Proto-Indo-Europeans?
The Proto-Indo-Europeans are believed to have lived between 4500 and 2500 BCE, with their homeland located in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, north of the Black Sea. This theory, known as the "Kurgan hypothesis," is supported by both linguistic evidence and archaeological findings, such as the characteristic burial mounds called kurgans.
The Kurgan people were primarily pastoralists, relying heavily on domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and particularly horses. The domestication of horses was a critical development that allowed the Proto-Indo-Europeans to expand their influence rapidly over vast territories. Horses gave them not only military advantages but also a means to facilitate trade and cultural exchange across wide expanses of the Eurasian steppe.
Their economy and culture were centred around mobility and warfare, which is reflected in their reconstructed vocabulary. For instance, the PIE word for “wheel” (kʷekʷlos) survives in modern languages like Latin (kyklos), Sanskrit (chakra), and English (wheel), suggesting an early mastery of wheeled vehicles.
The Discovery of Proto-Indo-European Language
Before the discovery of Proto-Indo-European as a language family, scholars hypothesised the existence of a common source language from which many modern languages were derived. In 1786, British philologist Sir William Jones observed striking similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, suggesting these languages shared a common origin. As Jones noted, the shared features between these languages were “so strong” that they must have “sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.”
This realisation sparked the field of comparative linguistics. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, linguists pieced together a hypothetical ancestor language—Proto-Indo-European—through the systematic comparison of cognates (words with shared origins) and grammar structures across the Indo-European languages.
By analysing languages like Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, and Gothic, linguists reconstructed thousands of PIE roots and words. One example is the PIE word for "father," pə́ter, which appears in Sanskrit as pitar, Latin as pater, and English as father. Similarly, the word for "night," nókʷts, is reflected in languages like German (Nacht), Latin (nox), and Lithuanian (naktis). These linguistic similarities reveal a common ancestry among the people who spoke these languages, even though they lived thousands of miles apart and in different epochs.
The Religion of the Proto-Indo-Europeans
Although we have no direct records of the Proto-Indo-Europeans’ religion, scholars have reconstructed elements of their belief system through comparative mythology. Many modern religions and mythologies in Indo-European cultures, such as those of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Norse, and Indo-Aryans, share striking similarities, suggesting that these beliefs originated from a shared Proto-Indo-European religion.
One key figure in this reconstructed religion is the sky god Dyēus Ph₂tēr, whose name means “Sky Father.” This deity likely presided over a pantheon of gods and was associated with the daytime sky, thunder, and sovereignty. Dyēus evolved into Zeus in Greek mythology, Jupiter in Roman mythology, and Dyaus in the Vedic tradition of ancient India.
Another central concept in PIE religion was the world tree or axis mundi, a symbolic representation of the universe connecting the heavens, earth, and underworld. This idea appears in various Indo-European mythologies, such as Yggdrasil in Norse mythology and the sacred fig tree (aśvattha) in Hinduism.
PIE society also appears to have been structured around a tripartite division of social functions—priests (associated with religion), warriors (associated with combat and leadership), and producers (farmers and herders). This idea, first proposed by the French scholar Georges Dumézil, finds parallels in ancient texts such as the Rigveda and in the caste systems of later Indo-European societies.
Proto-Indo-European Symbols and Rituals
Symbols and rituals played a vital role in Proto-Indo-European culture, particularly in their religious practices. While we have no direct depictions of PIE symbols, comparative mythology provides clues to how they may have viewed the world symbolically.
The wheel, for example, was not only a crucial technological invention but also held symbolic significance. In Vedic and Greek traditions, wheels were often associated with cosmic order and the cycle of time. The Sanskrit word chakra, which means both “wheel” and “circle,” later became a central concept in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, representing the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
Fire also held a sacred place in PIE culture. Reconstructed terms for fire (péh₂ur) indicate a widespread reverence for this element as a purifying and transformative force. In Vedic tradition, Agni is the god of fire and the intermediary between humans and the gods, while the ancient Romans worshipped Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. Fire rituals likely played a role in PIE religious ceremonies, symbolising both life and destruction.
The Misuse of Proto-Indo-European Legacy in Pseudoscience
While the study of Proto-Indo-Europeans has provided significant insights into the development of languages and cultures, their legacy has been misused to support pseudoscientific and racist ideologies. One of the most glaring examples is the distortion of the term "Aryan."
The word ā́rya, which in Sanskrit means "noble," was originally used to describe Indo-Iranian speakers, but in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European nationalists and racial theorists twisted this term to promote the idea of a pure "Aryan race." They claimed that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were the ancestors of a white, Northern European race, using this notion to justify racial hierarchies and colonialism.
Perhaps the most notorious misuse occurred during the Nazi era, when Adolf Hitler and his followers appropriated the "Aryan" myth to argue for the superiority of the Germanic peoples and to legitimise their genocidal policies. The Nazis claimed that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were a master race and that modern Germans were their direct descendants. However, there is no credible evidence to support this view. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were not a "pure" racial group but rather the ancestors of a vast array of peoples across Europe and Asia.
These racist interpretations of PIE history ignore the complexities of human migration and cultural exchange, which have always involved the mixing of peoples and ideas. Modern genetic evidence shows that the Proto-Indo-Europeans, like all human populations, were not ethnically homogeneous. Their legacy is shared by many peoples, including Europeans, South Asians, and Iranians.
Recognisable Words and Their Origins
Today, many everyday words can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European roots, providing tangible links to this ancient culture. Some examples include:
Mother (méh₂tēr in PIE): Found in mātṛ (Sanskrit), mater (Latin), and mutter (German).
Brother (bʰréh₂tēr in PIE): Seen in bhrā́tar (Sanskrit), frater (Latin), and brother (English).
King (rḗǵs in PIE): The root of words like rex (Latin), rājā (Sanskrit), and rí (Old Irish).
These examples demonstrate how PIE left its mark on the languages we speak today. By tracing these words, we can gain a sense of how the Proto-Indo-Europeans conceptualised the world around them.
The Importance of Independent Research
The study of Proto-Indo-Europeans offers a fascinating glimpse into the origins of language, culture, and belief systems. Yet, as we have seen, their legacy has often been misinterpreted and misused. It is crucial to approach the topic with an open mind and a critical eye, understanding that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were a diverse and complex people whose influence cannot be reduced to simplistic racial or ideological categories.
For those interested in learning more, there is a wealth of scholarship available. Some recommended works include:
Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press, 2007.
Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. Thames & Hudson, 1989.
Watkins, Calvert. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford University Press, 1995.
West, M.L. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press, 2007.
While this post has touched on many aspects of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, from their language and religion to their cultural symbols, it is by no means comprehensive. To truly appreciate the complexity of their legacy, I encourage you to dive deeper into the research and draw your own conclusions.